From Theory to Community: The Human Element of the Manhattan Project
- Sapiophielle
- Jul 30
- 24 min read
Updated: Jul 31
Abstract
This paper explores the often-overlooked human element within the highly secretive Manhattan Project, the top-secret program responsible for developing the atomic bombs during World War II. While the public and historical discourse frequently focus on the ethical implications and destructive power of the atomic bombs, this research delves into the intricate process of the project's development, highlighting the communities formed by the scientists, support workers, and their families. Despite enduring extreme secrecy, isolation, and a profound lack of personal privacy, these individuals forged unique social structures and adapted to their challenging circumstances.
The paper traces the evolution of the Manhattan Project from theoretical scientific concepts to a massive industrial undertaking, detailing the tensions between academia and industry and the strategic decisions that led to the involvement of firms like du Pont. It then examines the establishment and distinct characteristics of the three primary sites—Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Los Alamos, New Mexico; and Hanford, Washington—emphasizing how these secluded locations fostered tight-knit communities driven by a common goal: ending the war. The pervasive security measures, including mail censorship and monitored communications, are discussed, alongside the surprising resilience and "normal, happy lives" these communities managed to create. Finally, the paper addresses the ever-present threat of espionage, particularly through the lens of the VENONA project, and concludes by reflecting on the broader scientific advancements born from the Manhattan Project, underscoring the scientists' ultimate aim to help humanity and improve life for all, despite the profound consequences of their work.
INTRODUCTION
The spray of salt water covered the landing crafts as soldiers neared the beach. Barreling through the waves, the soldiers reached the sandy shores of France as blood filled the water and stained the sea foam. A world away on black sands, Marines ascended a mountain on the island of Iwo Jima, raising Old Glory and claiming control of the island. These pictures are iconic of World War II; however, on August 6, 1945 another picture is made as the mushroom cloud of the first atomic bomb covers Hiroshima. Three days later the image was replicated over Nagasaki. No sooner as the mushroom cloud formed did the ethics of the use of these massive bombs come into question. The atomic bombs were created under a Top Secret program referred to as the Manhattan Project. Today, the public focuses primarily on the negative aspects surrounding the end-product of the Manhattan project, largely ignoring the process of developing and building these destructive weapons, forgetting the human costs involved in the project. While the bombs were being developed and built, the government placed scientists, support workers, and their families in a difficult situation surrounded by secrecy, isolation, and a lack of personal privacy. Because of this, these individuals formed their own community and interacted with each other socially in ways they would not have under different circumstances. Despite the difficulties, these individuals made the best of the situation and continued to live their lives.
When Little Boy detonated in Nagasaki, some people began to question whether or not it was worth the loss of life. Even some people in leadership positions began to have second thoughts. Albert Einstein, who originally wrote President Roosevelt to warn of the German's current research into atomic weapons, stated in an interview with Newsweek magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing." Einstein continued to state that the atomic bomb was America’s “Maginot Line” (a fortified wall the French built during the buildup of World War II to protect itself after the travesties of World War I) in that the bomb gave the United States a false sense of security. Countless arguments have been made regarding the ethics behind the Manhattan Project by historians like Gar Alperovitzes, Barton Bernsteins, Dennis Wainstocks, and Ralph Raicos. The general public tends to get wrapped up in the debate, as well. These critics either view the event as a war crime or defend it; quite often ignoring historical facts surrounding the events, neither side is willing to budge on their opinion. The debate has caused many to become blind to the story behind the Manhattan Project and the progress made through the scientific findings.
Thankfully, these stories are not lost. The Atomic Heritage Foundation has worked to capture interviews in order to keep the story alive. Richard Rhodes, a Pulitzer Prize winning author and historian, has received awards for his research into the stories of the Manhattan Project; however, there is a middle ground that is not covered through the stories or the arguments. In the introduction to The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians edited by Cynthia C. Kelly, Richard Rhodes describes the Manhattan Project as “a time that was tragic, ironic, and epic, all three, but most of all intensely human, and compelled from the beginning not by malice or hatred but by hope for a better world.” The humanity in the Manhattan Project is the detail that is often lost in the science and the tragedy of the atomic bombs.
FROM A THEORY TO A PROGRAM
From the very beginning, the Manhattan Project was being created from scientific theories. Nuclear fission was nothing more than a possibility and although scientists were operating on the belief that it was possible to weaponize the process, there was little evidence to support such theories. Research on this theory started with a letter from Albert Einstein to President Roosevelt. It was from here, with the help of Dr. Vannevar Bush (Chairman of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) and Dr. James B. Conant (Chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC)), that the project grew into an atomic energy development program aimed at producing a weapon. Once the purpose was established to create a weapon, the program became governed by the Army and the Secretary of War. It was at this point in time that General Leslie M. Groves was assigned as the general in charge of the Manhattan Project and the atomic energy development program took flight.
The Manhattan Project, up to this point, was strictly housed in academia at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. They worked to develop ways to break down Uranium into a fissionable element, or an element that when it breaks apart or “fissions” it creates energy. In Sweden, Lise Meitner, an Austrian-born physicist and Otto Frisch, her nephew, carried out experiments which showed that the Uranium-235 (U-235) fission yielded an enormous amount of energy, and made it possible for a chain reaction which would yield unprecedented energy. The Chicago laboratory was continuing to work with this theory, but had not yet moved into the production phase; so when it was proposed for an industrial firm to take over the production of Uranium, there was tension and discontent among the scientists who felt they should control all decision making on the project. When the scientists were approached with the idea of being in an industrial firm, “the suggestion had resulted in a near rebellion, particularly among those whose entire experience had been in academic institutions. They simply did not comprehend the immensity of the engineering, construction, and operational problems that had to be overcome. Whenever attempts were made to explain them, they brushed them aside as inconsequential.” Those in academia were forced to learn how to work alongside and take orders from an industrial firm. A lesson that was hard to swallow, but was smoothed over when General Groves appointed Conant and Dr. Richard C. Tolman as his scientific advisors. The process of preparing the scientists to work with an industry firm was frustrating but necessary for the program to move forward. Although the science was theoretical, General Groves and Conant were looking at the production process and du Pont, a chemical engineering firm with the ability to take them there. When du Pont was approached to take on the task of building the nuclear sites that would purify uranium into a usable isotope and sustain a fission chain reaction, there was little information that could be presented to the board. Meetings were arranged with the leading engineers and scientists to discuss the viability of pulling off the entire project. It was concluded that if du Pont took on the project, it would either make the company or force it to go belly up. It was a very risky decision.
“As the directors entered the room at their next board meeting, they were asked not to look at the face-down papers on the table in front of them. Carpenter [Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., President of du Pont] explained that the Executive Committee was recommending that du Pont accept a contract from the government for a project in a previously unexplored field so large and so difficult that it would strain the capacity of the company to the utmost. He added that there were elements of hazard in it that under certain conditions could very well seriously damage if not well-nigh destroy du Pont. He said that the highest officials in the government, as well as those who knew the most about it, considered it to be of the highest military importance. Even its purpose was held in extreme secrecy, although if any Board member wished to he was free to read the face-down papers before voting. Not a single man, and they were all heavy stockholders, turned them over before voting approval- or afterwards- a true display of real patriotism.”
Du Pont accepted the risk and took over the production phase of the project. Production meant sites, workers and funds needed. The Manhattan Project, which started out as a theory, was building in size, creating its own community.
FROM A PROGRAM TO A COMMUNITY
Finding locations for the production of Uranium and for the building of the bomb was the next step in the process. These sites would form communities that were shrouded in secrecy, but would lead to a common goal; a goal that the citizens of these communities believed was possible and imperative to the war effort.
Three main sites formed the bases of operation: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Hanford, Washington, and Los Alamos, New Mexico. Oak Ridge and Hanford were production sites focusing on the production of isotopes required for the bomb. Oak Ridge focused on U-235, while Hanford’s focus was on Plutonium. Los Alamos was the odd man out in that it was the center of research for building the physical bombs. Each site had its own charm and challenges, but they were all communities forged in seclusion, secrecy, and the hope of an end to the war.
Oak Ridge was the first of the three sites for construction to begin. It was situated in East Tennessee, approximately 25 miles west of Knoxville. Colonel Kenneth D. Nichols, General Groves’ second in command, was responsible for the building of the base. “Nichols began working on the production site in East Tennessee. First, Nichols had a road built between Knoxville and Oak Ridge. Next, he hired Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), a New York architectural and engineering firm, to design a town for 30,000 people from scratch.” The production facility sites were built in the valleys away from the living spaces in order to provide security and containment in case of accidental explosions. The production facilities consisted of an electromagnetic plant, an experimental plutonium pile and separation facilities, and the gaseous diffusion plant, later a thermal diffusion plant would also be built.
The individuals working this site entered with little knowledge as to what they were in for. As they applied for jobs, they were told very little and were not allowed to relay information to anyone. Ceclia Szapka, the secretary from the Manhattan Project’s original office in New York City, was the first of many women to take the trip to Oak Ridge. Her boss, Lt. Col. Charles Vanden Bulck, called her one day to let her know that the office was relocated and asked her to relocate with it. All he could say was that the job would last six to nine months and a train would pick her up, “everything was taken care of.” As she decided, she contemplated how ridiculous it would sound to her mother, but “it was a job! A good job, a well-paying job. There were worse fates than a bit of secrecy as far as she was concerned.” Toni Peters, Jane Greer, Kattie Strickland, Virginia Spivey, Colleen Rowan, Dorothy Jones, Helen Hall, and Rosemary Maiers all went through the same process of a train to nowhere. Some focused on the temporariness of the job, others looked to the importance of the job, but each had their way of coping with the security measures taken.
Security was a top priority. One of the largest hurdles to get past was how to maintain security while working with union workers. At one point, an effort to organize the powerhouse workers began. General Groves appealed to the union leader. He stated that the unionization of any of the workers simply could not occur because they could not authorize an individual access to the information that a union representative would inevitably gain sitting in union meetings. The response was an example of the ownership in the project that was forming among the workers. “General, in view of what you have told me about the importance of this work and your feelings that any attempt to unionize would be injurious to the country’s welfare, I want to assure you that we’ll make no effort to organize these men; we’ll discourage any effort that is made, and we will do this with the full realization that this means that ultimately these men will not belong to our union.” General Groves was building a community with an awareness of the importance of the project that they were working on, and Oak Ridge was the first of three sites for this community to start to build.
The next site to be established was in Los Alamos, New Mexico. This site was the most secluded and secretive of the three sites. It was here where scientists would develop the atomic bomb and where the largest community was established. It was the only of the three sites that was established as a base. General Groves placed J. Robert Oppenheimer in charge of the technical area. The Tech area was the location of the laboratories and, without special passes and badges access, was extremely restricted. Access was granted based on “Need to Know,” if you did not need the information to complete the job then you were not allowed access. The wives knew the area only as “the pit which swallowed [our] scientist husbands.” Quite often the wives would speculate as to what the husbands were doing in the tech area for hours.
Aside from the tech area, there were, also, two post exchanges, the Fuller Lodge, two civilian mess halls, a beauty parlor, a barber shop, library, hospital, laundry, mail room, call center, and the various housing units that covered the base. Los Alamos was created to be a fully functioning base that was equipped with all the necessary amenities so that the coming and goings of the residents off the premises of the base was limited.
Building the community required roles to be filled as well. “There were clerks in the stores and PXs, bookkeepers, furnace men, road builders, construction gangs, and firemen.” Some individuals chose other roles to fill. The “desperate housewives” mentality was a common role for the housewives who remained at home. They took joy in getting caught up in the drama of the community, which was very easy as the small town dynamics began to form. “Los Alamos was an interesting experience, partly because of the personalities involved. It was a small town where private matters were of public concern, yet it was an unusual small town because so many of its citizens were brilliant men and women- many with the peculiarities attendant upon brilliance.” The operational and security procedures in the call center and mailroom did not help the issue at all. These jobs were filled by the residents, and it was their job to assist the censorship process. The workers would read their neighbors mail and listen in on their neighbor’s phone calls to ensure that no one was passing information that they were not authorized to share. The lack of insulation in the homes perpetuated the issue. Walls were very thin and there was always someone listening.
In times of emergency the small town dynamics were very evident. The lights in the operating room at the hospital were so bright that they were seen from almost anywhere on base. The hospital was centrally located which only assisted the clear visuals. At any time the lights were on, word travelled like wildfire. The wife of the principal doctor on Los Alamos remembers waiting outside the operating room while her husband took care of an emergency. “I remember waiting one night outside the hospital with Anne, Jim’s wife, while Jim and Henry were in the operating room taking care of an emergency. Anne was expecting a baby within a week or two. It was to be the first baby born at Los Alamos and as such was the cause of much comment. When a car drove up and the occupants spotted us standing in the shadows, they asked why the operating room lights were on. When we said we didn’t know, they wondered audibly if Anne’s baby was being born. Anne stepped out from the shadows and reassured them. As the car drove off, Anne made the fervent wish that her baby be born during the day, so as to assure her some chance of a head start on knowing whether the baby was a boy or a girl.” The community was small and had its quarks; however, it was a community bound together in a common understanding, each person had a job to do to help the success of the project.
The last site to be established was in Hanford, Washington. It was a smaller site and took Uranium produced at the Oak Ridge site and extracted Plutonium from it. The nearby village of Richland was where they established living quarters for all of the workers at Hanford. “Provisions were made for the permanent housing of some fifteen thousand people. The main administration buildings, the central service facilities for the plant, and all other structures normally required by such a project were located in the village. Among other things, we had to build laboratories, storehouses, shops, change houses, fences, electric, steam and water lines, sewers and storage tanks, as well as hundreds of miles of roads, railroads and distribution lines.” The leadership worked to make the living arrangements as nice as possible. They even went to extremes to increase the quality of life of its residents. Hanford was home to several thousand women and when their heels were wearing down because of gravel near their dorms, duPont leadership promptly replaced the gravel walkways with asphalt. They even arranged for scheduled buses to take the residents to the closest town so that they could go shopping and see a proper hairdresser (Hanford had limited shops and only a barber).
The three sites each had their own quarks; however, there were certain common threads that ran through them all- isolation, security restrictions, spartan living conditions, and monotony. Celia Szapka took a train to Oak Ridge without knowing where she was going; however, Oak Ridge was not the only site that experienced this train to nowhere. For the Jette family separation began before they ever moved to Los Alamos.
Eric Jette, a professor of metallurgy at Columbia University of Mines, who had to look for new work when the Chemical Warfare Service took over his lab. (Metallurgy is science concerned with the properties of metals and the production and purification of metals.) He wanted to help the war effort; so when A.B. Kinzel of the Union Carbide Company reached out to him, his interest was piqued. Eric Jette’s wife, Eleanor, remembered their first discussion regarding the possible job offer. The question was posed as to if she would like to move to the southwest. Eleanor was raised in Colorado and spent time in the southwest, but she pushed for more information. The only information given was that her husband would work on a secret project that may help bring an end to the war. The location, a remote area in the southwest, likely somewhere in New Mexico. The following day, Mr. Jette had a cryptic meeting with Cyril Smith to discuss the job opportunity and ended with a plan for Mr. Jette to visit the site when Cyril conducted his next inspection. When Mr. Jette left for his visit, Eleanor Jette was left with no information as to where her husband was going and no clue what to expect. She sent a list of questions she wanted answered and took the hope of an end to the war as her only solace. Two weeks later Mr. Jette returned and recounted where they would be moving; he accepted the job working on the metallurgical aspects of plutonium for the Manhattan Project. Mr. Jette gave his wife all the details that he could about the location and life at Los Alamos. Eleanor, unsure but supportive, began to make plans for the move. It was at this time that Mr. Jette gave her very important instructions. “You can’t resign your job at the defense office until just before we’re ready to leave. Nobody’s supposed to know we’re moving except the ones who actually move us and those who attend to our other business. We can’t tell our friends that I’m leaving the university. We can’t even tell Bill [their son] we’re going to move. Children his age are considered to be very poor security risks. Our families will have to know that we’re moving, but we can’t tell them where we’re going.” This secrecy was only the start. All of the locations had stringent security procedures to ensure that no information was leaked to enemy spies.
The sites each had a single P.O. box for retrieving mail for all of the residents. When the mail was retrieved, it was sent to a mailroom where workers weeded their way through mounds of mail prior to delivering it to the residents. Screeners read through each piece of incoming and outgoing mail. The residents were not allowed to seal the envelopes for this reason. At times it was helpful, if there was something missing, such as a payment or check to be enclosed, they would return it with a note. Other times it was frustrating because ordinary letters to family could be sent back because it failed to clear the screeners. “Our mail was censored. Furthermore, our correspondents were not supposed to know that it was censored. The method was simple. Mail went into the box unsealed, the censor read it, sealed it, and sent it on its way. Or, if he didn’t approve of the letter, he sent it back.” The call centers were similar operations. They were responsible for monitoring telecommunication and instructed to cut into conversations then alert security if certain topics were mentioned. Something as menial as describing their new home was not allowed. The operators would assist in transferring the phone calls and then would continue to monitor each communication in and out of the base.
Despite the security procedures, each site formed its own community, a fact eloquently described in Jane S. Wilson and Charlotte Serber’s Standing by and Making Do: Women of Wartime Los Alamos. “Los Alamos was unique, but not only because the town labored and brought forth an atomic bomb. That was noteworthy. The really marvelous thing was that we managed to adjust ourselves to the oddest conditions under which a community has ever been maintained and within these limits to lead reasonably normal, happy lives.” New families would arrive on site and culture shock would quickly set in. They were confined to the base and movement off base often required approval from base command and a pass to get through the gate security. Many did not have an address for the first few months. Their contact with the outside world was almost completely cut off until they were settled in the area. This forced them to make friends with neighbors or coworkers. The bases made every effort to accommodate the new families and afforded them the creature comforts as best they could. Libraries, stores, and community centers were located on every base; although, none looked like what you would expect. The library was the center of gossip as it processed all printed work, to include all of the classified documents; however, it was anything but conventional. “The librarian in blue jeans, one assistant in the best sweater-girl tradition, another a strict WAC uniform, and a third in a Lane Bryant number… it was the center of all gossip. It was a hangout. It had a document room and a vault. It was the production center for all secret reports written on the Project.” The stores were stocked and available to the residents; however, there was very little that was not rationed and those were very limited. The community centers were other hangouts. Community organizations, such as girl scouts and boy scouts, were held here, as well as dances, dinners, and many other activities. Once the new residences were settled, they started the job placement and psychological assessment process. The leadership used these assessments to judge security risks and the best job for each resident. They made a point to place each individual in a job that would benefit each person on base. From nurses to store clerks to town council members, every person had a role to play within the community. The army took care to send everything possible to help the community thrive, but manpower was always an issue. Any able-bodied soldier was sent to the front while they depended on housewives to man jobs in the mailroom, call centers, cafeterias, and exchanges. Every person had a part to play in the day to day operations of each site. They were communities all by themselves and it did not take long for these communities to band together and work for a common cause: to end the war.
FROM A COMMUNITY TO A CAUSE
The end of the war was the end goal for most of the residents living on the bases and working on the Manhattan Project, but the biggest threat to this goal was whether or not Germany was going to beat them to the end point. This triggered the need for anti-espionage procedures. The G-2, or intelligence office, dictated the dos and don’ts for the residents and workers. They hoped to ensure the safety of the project and the residents. Any sort of strange encounters while on pass, strange activity by neighbors, things that were just out of the ordinary or suspicious were reported to the G-2 and an investigation started. At times it felt as though the residents were in prison; however, most understood the importance of the security measures that were taken. “Everyone at Los Alamos accepted the fact that security was necessary if our Project were to succeed. Many of us had been primed before we arrived for a much more stringent supervision. We called it the ‘Concentration Camp Project’ and were therefore quite pleased with the freedoms we were allowed.” At one point a chemist was complaining, in a letter, about working with prima donnas and stating how he wished he took more classes in dramatics in school. He was told he could not reveal the nature of his work. It was the VENONA project that gave way to confirmation of acts of espionage, specifically on Los Alamos.
Intelligence sources, working on the VENONA project, were able to intercept and decrypt Soviet intelligence reports sent during and after World War II. The cables provided information regarding spies located on Los Alamos. The first cable was from February 9, 1944, and was in regards to Klaus Fuchs and Harry Gold. Klaus Fuchs was a British physicist that transferred to the Manhattan Project after the British atomic program merged with the American efforts. Fuchs worked at Columbia University and investigated ways to separate uranium. Fuchs passed along information about the current status of the Manhattan Project and outlined the chain of command, who was running the program, and what directions the project was entertaining. There were three other transmissions decrypted: September 21, 1944, November 12, 1944 and November 14, 1944. It was the September cable that nailed the coffin for the infamous Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, the only American citizens executed for conspiracy to commit espionage during the Cold War. Ethel recruited her brother and sister-in-law, David and Ruth Greenglass, who were passionate Communists and living in Los Alamos. In August 1944, Mr. Greenglass was transferred to Los Alamos and then assigned to a group that worked to design the highly technical bomb parts, to include detonators. Mrs. Greenglass was persuaded first to provide information to Julius Rosenberg about work done by Mr. Greenglass. Mr. Rosenberg hoped to eventually bring in Mr. Greenglass into the group of Soviet spies that he was, at the time, heading up. Mr. Greenglass wasted no time in confessing and quickly implicated both his wife and Julius Rosenberg when he was later confronted by the FBI. He was sentenced to 15-years in prison, of which he served 10. His wife managed to slip through the cracks while the Rosenbergs were convicted of conspiracy to provide atomic secrets to the USSR and sentenced to death. The FBI hoped that the death penalty would be a scare tactic and persuade them to confess, but the two stuck to their guns and died in the electric chair on June 19, 1953. The next cable decrypted was the first from the month of November. It was one of eight different cables regarding Theodore Alvin Hall. Hall was a physics genius and was hired on to the atomic project at the age of 19. Hall, another committed Communist, worked on the implosion method and in October 1944, he met with an old Harvard roommate, Saville Sax, expressing his desire to contact the Soviets. Hall turned over documents dictating specifics on the research and the roles individuals filled on the project to Sergey Kurnakov at his first meeting. The FBI focused efforts on the pair (Hall and Sax) and eventually collected enough information to interview both regarding their involvement in possible espionage, but the investigation did go much farther, neither Hall nor Sax gave any indications of involvement. Sax died in 1980 without any mark on him or his reputation, and although in 1996 a Washington Post reporter wrote an article about Hall's involvement, Hall died in 1999 and never admitted to his guilt. The last cable involved members of Julius Rosenberg’s network of spies, Alfred Sarant and Joel Barr. Sarant and Barr were both electrical engineers that worked on military radar systems with the U.S. Army Signal Corps, and were eventually released from their jobs with the Signal Corps at which time they were hired on by Western Electric to work on radar technologies. The two claimed they were able to deliver over 15 drawings relating to the APQ-17, a highly sophisticated airborne radar system. The FBI began arresting associates, but never got a chance on the pair because they disappeared. Barr, who was living in Paris, left everything behind after the arrest of David Greenglass. He gave no indications and left no trace. Barr returned to the United States in 1992, he denied all involvement despite the evidence against him. In 1998, Barr, also, passed away in St. Petersburg, Russia. Sarant was brought in for questioning, but the FBI did not have enough evidence to arrest him. Sarant informed the FBI that he would be traveling to Long Island, New York to visit family, but rather fled the country with his mistress to Mexico. Sarant died in 1979 in the USSR of a heart attack. The VENONA project lasted until 1980 and decrypted approximately 3,000 messages. The information provided intelligence agencies with insight into the tactic, techniques, and procedures of Soviet Russia, as well as, provided identities of spies working in various departments of the United States Government, to include the State Department, Treasury Department, Office of Strategic Services, the White House, and the Manhattan Project. The VENONA project only confirmed the fears of espionage, and provided each base with the credentials to pursue any possible acts of espionage. Espionage was very real to those working on the project and brought those working on the project the realization as to how real the war was. Many had loved ones fighting, but few actually saw the front lines. The security and isolation was frustrating at times, but it was for the war. It would end the war and it would create a very large explosion that the world would see.
Despite the attempts to thwart it, the Manhattan project succeeded and a mushroom cloud formed over Japan on August 6, 1945. On November 2, 1945, J. Robert Oppenheimer addressed the scientists at Los Alamos. “It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the knowledge of the world, and the power to which this gives, is a thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of knowledge, and are willing to take the consequences.” Oppenheimer vocalized the cause many of the scientists were working towards. They were aware of the consequences, but their goal was to help humanity and end a horrific, brutal war. Before the bomb dropped, the Pacific war was being waged in a sadistic manner. Soldiers on both sides were defacing corpses and torturing prisoners of war. “The marines and the infantry and even the line navy, to those, in short, who fought the Second World War mindful always that their mission was, as they were repeatedly assured, ‘to close with the enemy and destroy him.’ Destroy, notice: not hurt, frighten, drive away, or capture.” War is bloody business and should not be taken lightly; however, every day there were soldiers dying horrific deaths. If the invasion on the Malay Peninsula occurred on September 9th as planned, it was estimated that another 200,000 men would be casualties of war. The atomic bomb put an end to it, as well as, opened the door to countless scientific progressions.
The nuclear program did not only develop weapons, but ideas and practical applications for nuclear physics. Particle accelerators, nuclear power, radiation therapy, nuclear powered engines and a list of other applications have been directly or indirectly traced back to the research on the Manhattan Project. In the realm of nuclear power, “more and more countries are harnessing nuclear fission’s energy for electricity. As of May 2014, 435 nuclear reactors in 30 countries are operating, and nuclear power provided 12.3 percent of the world’s produced electricity in 2012. As of 2011, 13 countries produce more than 25 percent of their electricity through nuclear power, with France leading the pack by a mile—nearly three-quarters of the power that lights the lights of Paris is derived from nuclear plants.” Doctors use radioactive material combined with pharmaceutical drugs to create images of a patient’s internal organs or sometimes even treat diseases, like cancer. The initial goal for all the residents was to end the war, but the real cause they were fighting for was to improve life for all, including themselves.
FROM A CAUSE TO A STORY
Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson stated in 1948 that “History is often not what actually happened but what is recorded as such.” The written accounts tend to focus on the negative aspects of nuclear physics and the destruction of the atomic bombs. Although there is no doubt many negative aspects to this end-product, if the process and the people involved in the developing and building of these destructive weapons are ignored, we are not looking at the whole story. These individuals made the best of the hand they were dealt and continued to live their lives, continuing to write their story.
Annex I
Annex II
Annex III
Annex IV
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